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There are two large irrigation and power developments from the Platte-one at Gothenburg, the other at Kearney. The Gothenburg project, owned by the Gothenburg Light and Water Company, diverts from the river to a large reservoir just northwest of the city. The lake is used for bathing, boating, fishing and park purposes and water is released over a large head to generate 400 horsepower of current. The Kearney project, the largest in the state in amount of power generated, and now owned by the Central Power Company of Grand Island, diverts from the Platte about three miles southeast of Elm Creek and through a 24-mile canal leading to the power station at Kearney. The project has the right to 140 second feet of water at the head gate. Aditional (sic) water is developed from the sands in what has been called "blue well." Part of the allotment is used for irrigation.
Several years ago powers were installed in the small channels of the Platte at Central City and Grand Island but they are not now operated. The power records of the Platte basin, aside from the Loup and Elkhorn, are as follows: Platte River, installed 5, abandoned 3, operating 2; Pumpkin, Creek, installed and abandoned 1; Blue Water Creek, not finished, 1; Birdwood Creek, filing but only started to build, 1; Wood River, built and abandoned 6; Silver Creek, installed and abandoned 1; Warm Slough, installed and abandoned 1; Shell Creek, installed 4, abandoned 3; operating 1; Salt Creek and Wahoo Creek, installed 15, abandoned 13, operating 2; Lodgepole Creek, installed and abandoned 1; total for Platte drainage (except for the Loup and Elkhorn Rivers) installed 35, abandoned 30, operating 5.
The Loup River System of the central part of the state forms the main tributary of the Platte. Its drainage basin of about 14,000 square miles includes sandhill, loess plains, loess hills, and broad valley bottoms in which bench lands are a feature. The rivers head in the sandhills where the rainfall soaks into the soil, is conserved and doled out to the streams through thousands of springs, giving a uniform flow. The run-off is larger, compared with the drainage area, than in the Nebraska -rivers. The approximate mean discharge of the principal branches of the Loup system are as follows: South Loup, 150 to 300 second feet; Muddy Creek, no record; Dismal River, 300 to 400 second feet; Middle Loup, 1,000 to 1,100 second feet; North Loup, 1,000 second feet; Calamus River, 400 second feet; Spring Creek, no record, Cedar River, 100 to 200 second feet, and Beaver Creek, 50 to 150 second feet.
Dismal River is a branch of the Middle Loup, and Calamus River is a branch of the North Loup. The Loup proper is formed by the junction of the Middle and North branches near St. Paul. The discharge of the united Loup at Columbus is rarely below, 1,300 second
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The Loup valleys are comparatively wide and open. The bordering slopes are hilly and the valley floors include flood plain and bench land. The streams, flowing upon sandy beds, have a tendency to shift position. The valley floors drop between 6 and 7 feet per mile. Several small water falls occur in Dismal River, and two occur in the North Loup.
The water power record of the Loup basin is as follows: South Loup, installed 3, abandoned 1, operating 2; Muddy Creek, installed 6, abandoned 2, operating 4; Middle Loup, installed 7, abandoned 4, operating 3; North Loup River, installed and abandoned 7; Davis Creek, installed and abandoned 1; Cedar River, installed 4, abandoned 1, operating 3; Beaver Creek, installed 4, abandoned 1, operating 3; main branch of Genoa, installed and abandoned 1. Total for Loup basin, installed 36, abandoned 20, operating 16.
The Boelus or second largest water power project in the state, diverts from the Middle Loup southwest of Boelus. A canal extends eastward about three miles to a power house on the South Loup where current is generated under a head of about 20 feet and transmitted twenty miles to Grand Island and distributed to a number of towns and cities. The Boelus project experiences much difficulty with sand and slush ice and is supplemented by steam power, as is the case with practically all Nebraska water powers. The Boelus and Kearney projects are now operated by the Central Power Company of Grand Island.'
The Lundy Hydro-Electric Power Company has a large power plant about six miles west of Sargent. Rather novel methods are used here to get rid of the sand and to manage the slush ice. The large lake and power at Ericson was destroyed by a flood a few years ago but has been rebuilt this year. The powers now operating in the Loup basin are at or near Arnold, Callaway, Ravenna, Litchfield, Mason City, Ansley, Boelus, Loup City, Ericson, Sargent, Cedar Rapids, Fullerton, Albion and St. Edward.
Undeveloped Power Projects. Several large projects have been surveyed and advocated for the Loup and the Platte. The main branches of the Loup have power possibilities at places aside from those popularly thought to be the best. The valley floors slope sufficiently for diversion upon low gradients to the bordering valley sides from which water could be dropped to generate power. The Loup powers if built, will prove costly and difficult to maintain. Powers would be possible on the Platte below the junction with the Loup. Among the proposed developments, two have received attention. They are known as the Fremont Canal and Power Company, and the Ross Project.
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The Little Blue heads on the loess plains near Hastings and Minden and flows southeastward, leaving Nebraska in the southern part of Jefferson county. It unites with the Big Blue near Waterville, Kansas, which river joins the Kansas River near Manhattan. The Little Blue Valley in Nebraska is bordered by gradual slopes in the upper course and stony land in the vicinity of Fairbury and Steele City. The slopeland soils range between silt loam and sandy loam. The river bed is strewn with sand. The stream is quite swift. The normal flow is 250 to 500 second feet in the southern part of the state, but this is greatly increased at flood stages. Powers are operated at Deweese, Oak, Hebron, Alexandria and Fairbury. There are abandoned powers at or near Spring Ranch, Reynolds, Kesterson, Angus, Hebron, Old Meridian, Powell and Steele City (three here). The power record of the Little Blue is: installed 15, abandoned 10, operating 5.
The Big Blue rises in the loess plains and drift hills south of the Platte and flows southward to Kansas and the "Kaw." The principal branches come in from the west where they are fed by seepage from the underflow of the loess plains. The trunk stream is comparatively uniform with a normal discharge of about 450 second feet at the state line.
The Big Blue is Nebraska's best developed power stream. Powers are operating at Ulysses, Seward, Milford, between Milford and Crete, at Crete(2), Dewitt, Wilber, Hoag, Beatrice, Holmesville, Blue Springs, and Barneston. The only -abandoned projects in the main channel are Garber Mill, Staplehurst, and between Seward and Milford. The water power record of the tributaries is as follows: Swan Creek, built and abandoned 1; Turkey Creek, built 2, abandoned 1, operating 1; West Branch, built 11, operating 5, abandoned 6; North Branch, built and operating 1. Total for Big Blue basin, installed 36, abandoned 13, operating 23.
There is some talk now of diverting water from the Platte to the Big Blue in order to boost the powers now operated.
The Republican River heads on the table land of Colorado, enters Nebraska in Dundy county and flows eastward to Nuckolls county where it turns southward to Kansas and the "Kaw." The river occupies prairie land and agricultural areas of Nebraska. The valley is comparatively narrow and between 200 and 400 feet deep. The valley floor is divided between the flood plain proper and well defined benches. The slope land is gradual to rough with stone exposed at places. The soil ranges between sandy loam and silt loam, but shows small areas of clay loam. The Republican river fluctuates markedly' in discharge. The flow may cease at places during periods of drouth. Floods and ice gorges do some damage.
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Powers have been installed and operated in the Republican at or near Arapahoe, Oxford, Orleans, Alma, Franklin, Red Cloud, Guide Rock and Superior. Only the first and last named of these remain, the others having been torn out by high waters.
Powers are operated in the tributaries of. the Republican at or near Amboy, Riverton, Bloomington, Naponee, Cambridge, Curtis, Maywood, Palisade, Hamlet, Wauneta and Champion and there are abandonments at or near Franklin, Republican City, Stamford, Beaver City, Wilsonville, Danbury, Araphoe, Stockville, Red Willow, Palisade, and on Sappa Creek at a point south of Beaver City. The record for the Republican basin is -installed 35, abandoned 20, operating 15.
White River is fed by branches heading principally in the Pine Ridge of Sioux, Dawes and Sheridan counties. The main branch starts southeast of Harrison and flows past Andrews, Glen and Crawford. The small streams joining on the south are Ash, Indian, Dead Horse, Chadron, Bordeaux and Beaver. They have swift, cool waters which offer trout fishing and are used for stock water, rural homes and irrigation. The city of Chadron is supplied from a reservoir and underground water in Chadron valley. The past few years A large irrigation project was built near Whitney.
Five powers are installed
in White River and its tributaries but all but one, at Crawford,
are abandoned, yet small developments would be possible for ranch
lighting and pumping.
These figures should not be wrongly interpreted because nearly all the abandonments were small pioneer projects, and because there has been a greater development of water power the past 10 years than for any other period of that length in the history of the state.
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CONSERVATION OF WATER POWER
Conservation prevents waste and promotes development for the most beneficial use. Thus far, much of the water of the state has gone to waste. This should not continue, for there is little fuel except what is shipped in. The state is rich in agriculture, but relatively weak in manufactures and commerce. Industry follows cheap power and the state has water resources with which to develop power under efficient management. There has been a rapid developmenf of water powers the past few years notwithstanding the fact that of the 283 powers installed in the state to date only 80 are now operating.
Certain advancements of recent years make possible the utilization of rivers like the Niobrara, Loup and Lower Platte. Among the advancements are concrete construction, canalization, long distance transmission and a knowledge of how to divert and handle ice and sandladen streams. These improvements enhance the water power possibilities, but it should be recognized that most of our streams are too small for economic long distance transmission. They are better suited for local use and there is small demand for power at the most advantageous places for development.
The conservation of the
Loup and the lower Platte deserves attention. These rivers are
quite well located for the market distribution of power. Their
power could be carried to a large rural or urban population. It
might be used to light city and country, drive the machinery of
industries, and move the cars of city and interurban railways.
These things are desirable and attainable, but there is lack of
agreement regarding methods of procedure. The public is interested
in the matter only in a general way and all who have anything to
do with the subject receive more or less criticism, whether justly
so or not. The discussion is from two points of view -- of the
state and of private interests. This makes it especially
interesting in politics. In fact, there is much political talk
regarding the water possibilities of Nebraska, but there is a
growing tendency to consider the subject of water power in its
proper relation to industry and public welfare and upon a basis of
survey and facts.
This group of natural assets has much greater importance than is generally supposed, yet for years wild life has been destroyed without regard to consequences. During the past few years the people have realized the value of the wild life resources and definite progress is being made for their conservation.
There are a number of animals which serve continually and successfully and which the people destroy without regard for their usefulness. They are the animals which keep down insects, mice, gophers and rats. Most of the song birds, the quail, several of the hawks, the owls, toads, bats and some of the snakes should be protected and
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Prairie a Resource. About 35 per cent of Nebraska is, in the native sod, on which grasses form the main cover. Among the valuable grasses are blue stem, brome grass, buffalo grass, grama grass, wheat grass, slough grass, red top and blue grass. The blue stems, grama grasses and wheat grass are the most desirable for grazing and hay.
Soil and Grasses. There are noticeable differences in the grass cover on the various kinds of land. For example, the growth is short and hard as a rule, on the dry, hard land soils, and taller and more tender where there is a large amount of moisture. Slough grass and the blue stems occupy damp places. Buffalo and grama. grasses are adapted to the drier hard land types. Species of redfeldia and other blowout grasses occur on blown, sandy ground. Hence the grass cover varies in density and quality and therefore in its value for grazing and hay. Grass improvement is the big conservation problem in parts of Nebraska.
The prairie areas of Nebraska contain several herbaceous and woody plants, some of them being only weeds. Among the herbaceous plants are shoe string, wild licorice, rosebush, soap weed, buck brush and sage brush, These, though having some grazing value, are less desirable than the fattening grasses.
Improvement of Grasses. Grass lands can be improved without plowing, as by keeping out fires when the seeds would be destroyed or roots would be damaged; by seeding on sod, and by conservative grazing. Prairie meadows of the sandhills have been improved by seeding with timothy, sweet clover, white clover, red clover, alsike clover and blue grass. Most ranchmen now favor the use of sweet clover.
Technical management of the prairie cleans out weeds and makes grass and hay of uniform quality. The new grasses increase the value of the land for grazing and hay production and it matters little whether grass and hay come from the wild or from the so-called cultivated Varieties, so long as they serve well in the production of beef Some of the best results secured by good management of prairie hay land are at Bassett, Newport, O'Neill, Valley, Schuyler, Clarks, Central City and North Platte.
Prairie and Agriculture. There is a prejudice against prairie in Nebraska. A soil covered with native sod. is said to be "raw" or "unimproved," whereas the same soil, if plowed, is said to be "improved." The fact is that some soils. are damaged, not improved by plowing and farming. Much of the original prairie on land suited to farming has given way to successful agriculture, in which much labor
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Conserving Grasslands.
The following conditions and situations have native grasses which
should be conserved:
1. The rough stony lands.
2. The sloughs in hilly parts of
the agricultural areas. The grass cover of many sloughs was
destroyed by plowing. Then came gullying and the formation of deep
ditches in the fields. This condition can be reclaimed by sowing
seeds of native grasses and by lifting the plow while crossing a
slough or draw and by the use of retards.
3. Wet, flood lands of valleys. The
sod should be retained on these places, until drainage is
established, especially so if the soil is a thin sandy loam
underlain by sand.
4. Drouthy soils in parts of the
state having low rainfall. The light soils and those in which a
thin surface soil rests upon sand should be guarded because native
grasses do better on them than can be obtained by farming.
5. Dune sand (the hills) of the
sandhill region.
6. Wet meadow soils of the
sandhills. These soils yield good crops of hay most years and with
comparatively little labor.
Prairie Hay is one of the valuable crops of the state. The sandhill ranches put up large amounts of it for winter feed, some cutting 2,000 tons or more per year. Poorly drained alluvial lands of the large valleys of the state give good yields both dry and wet years.
Much baled hay is shipped. There
are dealers in a number of towns in the hay districts as at
Newport, Bassett, Stuart, O'Neill, and Ainsworth. Shipments are to
Omaha, Valley, Sioux City, St. Joseph, Kansas City, Denver and
Chicago. Some of the hay goes to Kansas City from which it is
distributed to cities in the southeast and an increasing amount is
shipped to the dairies of Minnesota.
The natural forest of the state occurs along streams, on rough land bordering valleys, and on the rough uplands of the western and northwestern counties. The distribution is scattered and there are no exclusively forested areas. The leading trees are as follows:
BROAD-LEAVED TREES--The principal trees of valley bottoms are willows, cottonwoods, elms, hackberry, boxelder and green ash.
Willows are represented by a number of species, of which the sandbar, black, almond-leaf, and glossy forms are the most common.
Cottonwoods are widely distributed. The broad-leaf form has the greatest range; the lance-leaf form is in some of the canyons of Pine Ridge and Wildcat Ridge, and the western or narrow-leaf cottonwood is in Carter Canyon, Banner county.
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Hackberry occurs on most of the alluvial lands of the state in association with elms, cottonwoods, and other broad-leaved species.
The Boxelder, one of the principal stream-side trees, is quite plentiful in most of the bottom land forests, leading in numbers at many places.
Green and Red Ash occur in many valleys in association with box elder and other trees, and the white ash is restricted in the lowlands of the eastern counties.
The Soft or Silver Maple grows on the lowlands of counties bordering or near the Missouri. The mountain maple is found in Pine Ridge and the Norway and hard maples have been planted very generally for street and park purposes.
The Sycamore is represented by a few trees on the alluvial lands of the Missouri and its tributaries from Omaha southward.
The Basswood or Linden occurs in the middle and lower courses of the Niobrara, along the Missouri and its tributaries and westward to the lower part of the Republican. The tree grows mainly in the slope lands.
The Honey Locust occurs in the natural forest along the Missouri, its small tributaries and in the lower courses of the Niobrara and Republican valleys.
The Buckeye and the Kentucky Coffee Tree are on the bottom lands of the southeastern counties of the state.
The Oaks are represented principally by the bur oak which has wide range on the rough valley sides of the eastern, southern and northern parts of the state. Some of the best stands are in the Niobrara and its tributaries, as near Wood Lake, Long Pine and Valentine. This tree is in practically pure stands at some of these places. The red oak is quite common on the bluff lands of the Missouri. The laurel oak, chestnut oak, black jack oak and yellow oak have been identified in the southeastern part of the state.
Hickories, represented by few trees of four species, occur on the flood plains and rough lands bordering valleys of the southeastern counties. The shell bark and bitternut are the most common, but a few big nut and mockernut trees are found.
The Black Walnut is quite widely distributed on the bottom land of the eastern half of the state and has been planted in every county.
Black Birch, and a few representatives of quaking aspen occur in the canyons of Pine Ridge.
The Paper Birch grows on some of the steep slopes of the Niobrara valley, the best stands being about 10 miles east of Valentine.
PINES AND CEDARS--The western yellow pine occurs on the rough lands of the western and northern parts of the state. Growing among the pines are red cedars. Most of the pines are in the Pine Ridge, Wildcat Ridge, North Platte and Lodge Pole areas, occupying more than 500 square miles, The trees are at their best on Pine
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Tree Planting. Nebraska is the home of Arbor Day. Much tree planting was done during tree-claim days. This has brought favorable results in every soil province of the state. Planted groves are now a feature throughout the lengths of the Republican, Platte, Lodgepole, Loup and Elkhorn valleys. Great credit is due the tree planters of Nebraska. The early planters used such trees as they could secure, the cottonwood, ash, boxelder, locust and catalpa, and relatively few pines and cedars. Fires and cattle damaged the groves and few trees were irrigated.
The State Forester of the Conservation and Survey Division and the Forester of the Agricultural Extension Service of the University assist in extending the forest resources of the state.
Forest Reserves. The Federal Government has experimented with tree planting near Halsey and on the Niobrara Reserve and shown conclusively that certain kinds of trees can be grown on the sandhills. Many ranchmen, profiting by this experience, and by the use of trees shipped to them from the Halsey nursery have beautified their places and grown large wind breaks for protection. The Reserve now has about 9000 acres of very good pine forest which can be seen from the Burlington trains as they pass through the Middle Loup Valley above Halsey.
Amount of Timber. In some counties about 1 per cent of the area is forested, whereas in others, such as Thurston, Lancaster and Dawes, it is 7 per cent or more. Between 3 and 4 per cent of the state is covered by forest- natural and planted. The number of acres of trees is about equal to the number of people in the state. This is timber enough, if used for fuel, to support the state during a long coal famine. Persons wishing assistance in the selection of trees for street and parks can secure help from the State Forester, of the Conservation and Survey Division. Those wanting to plant wood lots should consult the Extension Forester of the Agricultural College of the University.
Use of Trees. The forest of Nebraska has not been used economically. The bur oak leads the broad-leaved trees in value. It is used chiefly for posts. The cottonwood is used for wind-breaks, fire wood, and lumber. The walnut has high value for lumber and supplies many nuts. Willows are used for firewood and rip-rap. Ash, boxelder, maple, most oaks, and bass wood are used to some extent for structure purposes but mostly for firewood. The yellow pine is
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Forest Conservation
Problems. The utilization of forest is a problem in Nebraska.
Most trees occur in mixed stands and there is no definite market
for their products. Furthermore, most of the people are more
accustomed to the ways of prairie land than to forest and do hot
know from experience how to use the axe and saw. Firewood is in
little demand because coal is used generally. Lumber comes from
other states and it may not be possible to produce it in Nebraska
in competition with the large lumber districts and their methods
of distribution. Trees are used in Nebraska mostly for windbreaks,
shade and park purposes, for which the selection of species has
not been very good. Also, many of the trees have been neglected
and it will require much effort to repair those now standing in
the parks, and on the streets and lawns.
The wild fruits of most importance are gooseberries, raspberries, blackberries, currants, grapes, chokecherries, and the sand cherry, plum, buffalo berry, crab apple, elderberry, and pawpaw.
The Common Gooseberry is on most of the bottom lands of the eastern and southeastern parts of the state where there is forest. It comes into fruitage early in the year and the fruit is eagerly sought by many people from the country and towns. The western wild gooseberry is found principally in the northwestern counties. The red raspberry and the black raspberry grow on the slope land of the timber belts and supply a limited amount of food. The wild currant is quite plentiful in some canyons of the Pine Ridge and Niobrara areas and in ravines bordering the North Platte.
Wild Grapes of two kinds occur in practically every county with timber. They are the early wild grape and the summer grape. The fruit of these is quite plentiful especially along the Missouri and in the Frenchman and Niobrara valleys.
Wild Cherries of four species grow in Nebraska. They are the wild black cherry of the eastern counties, the sand cherry of the sandhills, the western chockecherry and the common chokecherry. The sand cherry is a valuable fruit. It grows on very sandy ground, principally on the sand hills and at places on the high plains. The ranch people gather this fruit in large quantities and use it for a number of purposes, as jelly, jams, sauce and wine. Chokecherries are widely distributed. The chokecherry is a common plant along the Niobrara and its tributaries, in the canyons of the Pine Ridge, along parts of the Platte, and at places in the Loup and Elkhorn valleys. The western form produces large amounts of fruit used for jellies, butter and other purposes.
The Buffalo Berry sometimes called the bull berry, grows along most streams and ravines of the western and central counties. The
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The Wild Plum has wide distribution and is especially abundant in the Frenchman, Medicine and Niobrara valleys. The fruit is used mostly. for butter and sauce.
The Western Crab Apple is found in a few places in the state from northeast to the southeastern counties.
The Elderberry grows abundantly near streams in the southeastern counties and is used some for jams and preserves.
The Pawpaw grows along the Missouri in the southeastern part of the state. It is most plentiful at or near Nebraska City, Peru, Brownville, Nemaha and Rulo. The ripe fruit is eaten raw.
Nuts grow in parts of
Nebraska. Hazelnuts and hickory nuts in some of the timber
areas of the eastern counties, and the black walnut is more widely
distributed.
Nebraska has several kinds of fish in streams and lakes. The following are the principal kinds: Bullheads, channel cat, carp, buffalo, crappie, pike, blue gills, sunfish, perch, trout and bass. Frogs and turtles are included with the fish resources.
The Bureau of Game and Fish of the state Department of Agriculture looks after the propagation, distribution and conservation of fish, also licensing and the enforcement of game and fish laws. A chief game warden and many deputy wardens are employed to protect these resources. The state has three fish hatcheries, located near Gretna, Valentine and Benkelman.
BuIlheads are common in the streams, ponds and lakes. The yellow cat has been distributed quite generally for stocking purposes.
Channel Cat occur in all the rivers of the state and afford good fishing in the Republican, Little Blue, Big Blue, Nemaha, Loup Elkhorn and Niobrara and at places in the Platte. They are also found in some lakes.
German Carp, American Carp and Buffalo have wide range in streams and Lakes--the carp mainly in the southeastern counties. The buffalo is more widely distributed, occurring in practically all streams.
Gar and Sturgeon, both large stream fish, occur principally in the Missouri and Platte. A few eels have been caught in the Elkhorn, Loup and Platte.
Blue Gills, Sunfish and Crappie are in most waters suitable for bass and perch. Some of the largest catches of crappie and sunfish are from dredged lakes near Fremont, Valley, Ashland, Meadow and Louisville.
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Wall-Eyed Pike and Pickerel are found principally in the North Platte. Pickerel occur on the Loup, Elkhorn and Republican rivers and in Cottonwood, Hagan and other lakes of the sandhills. Formerly large numbers of pike were caught below the diversion dams in Scotts Bluff county. The catch was many tons per year. The problem of returning pike to the North Platte is one of importance.
Speckled and Rainbow Trout are in the small, swift streams of the northwestern part of the state, as in the Pine Ridge area and in tributaries of the middle course of the Niobrara. Some of the trout streams are Monroe Creek, Sow Belly Creek, West Hat Creek, East Hat Creek, White River, Big Bordeaux, White Clay, Boardman, above its junction with the Snake, Schlagle, Minnechadusa, McFarland and Plum creeks. Trout occur also in the drainage ditches of the North Platte valley and at the head waters of the Elkhorn and Loup rivers. One can find very good sport among the trout of Nebraska.
Bass are in many of the natural and artificial lakes and some streams and afford good fishing at places. At one time bass fishing was best in some of the sandhill lakes. Most fish here were winter-killed in 1915. The lakes were restocked and fishing is again quite good. Beaver, Rat, Hackberry, Red Deer, Dewey, Willow and Enders are well-known bass lakes. Willow Lake of Cherry county is the best bass breeding grounds in the state. Minnows are collected here for stocking other waters. Bass occur in the dredged lakes along the Platte, in the cut-off lakes along the Missouri and Republican, in artificial lakes of the Loup, Elkhorn and Niobrara valleys, in some of the reservoirs of the irrigation districts and in the clear streams like Cedar River.
Frogs have some importance as a source of food. The small leopard frog thrives about the marshes and fresh water lakes. Though edible, it is too small for use. The greenish bullfrog, native of the southeastern counties, has been planted about the streams and lakes of the central and northwestern counties with very good results, as in the boggy places of Long Pine canyon.
Turtles occur in all parts of the state in both dry and wet places. The snapping turtle is widely represented by a number of varieties, most of them too small to supply meat. A very large edible form grows in the fresh-water lakes of the sandhills. As much as twelve pounds of meat has been taken from a single animal and used for soups and stews. The soft-shelled turtle is in some of the streams of the southern counties and occasionally in the streams and lakes farther northwest.
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GAME RESOURCES
The state's game consists of birds and mammals. Among the birds are the quail, prairie chicken, grouse, ducks, geese, snipes, plovers and curlew. The wild turkey was in the eastern and southwestern counties during the early history of the state. The mammals are the rabbit, opossum, raccoon, antelope, deer and buffalo.
Bob White or Quail occur in parts of the state having brush and timber. They are quite numerous along the Niobrara and parts of the Republican. They are among the best game birds of the state, but have greater value in agriculture. There is no open season on the quail.
Prairie Chickens were plentiful in the southeastern and southern counties in pioneer days but few birds remain here. They are quite numerous, however, in the eastern part of the sandhill region. Sharptailed grouse, found mostly in the central and western parts of the sandhills, closely resemble the prairie chicken, except that they are a little smaller, much lighter below and fly more evenly. Both birds afford good shooting in the sandhills. Sage hens are not found in Nebraska but they occur across the line in Wyoming.
Ducks are in Nebraska in large numbers during the periods of migration and breeding. Some remain during the winter. Those. breeding, which is principally in the lake districts, are: Blue-Winged Teal, Green-Winged Teal, Mallard, Pintail, Ruddy or Butterball, Redhead, Canvasback, Ringnecked Duck and the Shoveller. About fifteen other ducks, six or seven species of geese, the trumpeter swan and the white pelican are migrants.
The Federal laws, by preventing spring shooting, conserve the migrating birds. The number of ducks nesting in Nebraska is noticeably on the increase, notwithstanding the fact that many lakes are being drained for hay and land farming.
Hunting Ducks and Grouse. Ducks and grouse shooting have importance in parts of the sandhills. Hunting lodges or camps are found at many lakes and marshes and the number of birds killed at these places during the open season is large. Hunters come from all parts of Nebraska and from other states. Duck shooting is very good in some parts of the state, and a few geese are bagged each year.
The Upland Plover, formerly plentiful throughout the state, dwindled in numbers until only a few birds were observed, since which time there has been a steady increase.
The Long-Billed Curlew breeds in the state principally about the wet valleys of the sandhills. This bird was once plentiful, then rarely observed, but is now increasing, there being no open season.
The Mourning Dove is protected in Nebraska both by law and by the sentiment the people hold against killing it.
The Chinese Pheasant has been introduced at many places and should become a source of considerable food within a few years when an open season is established.
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The rabbits are hunted generally. They afford sport and supply a considerable amount of meat. It would be possible to develop them as a resource of importance.
The Western Fox Squirrel occurs in all native timber areas of eastern and southeastern counties and in many planted groves here and farther west. The squirrel is hunted to some extent for meat. The black squirrel is reported from Richardson county.
The Raccoon is found along practically all streams where there is brush and timber and about the marshes of the sandhills. It is hunted generally in wooded areas and is trapped in the lake districts. "Coon hunting" at night with hounds is practiced in many places. The opossum occurs in the timber belts and sometimes at a distance from forest.
The Prong-Horn Antelope, once plentiful in all of the state, remains in Kimball, Banner, Sioux and Garden counties. The largest bands are in Sioux county south of Agate, and in Garden county near Crescent Lake. The antelope is protected throughout the year.
Deer of two species--white-tailed and black-tailed, remain in northwestern Nebraska. The first named is on the Halsey Forest Reserve and the near-by Dismal River country of the sandhills and the other is in the Pine Ridge country northwest of Crawford. There is no open season for deer hunting.
Wapiti or Elk were very plentiful in what is now Nebraska. They are reported to have occurred in largest number along the Dismal River. A few remain in parks and game reserves.
The Bison, now extinct
except for a few animals in parks and on the Federal game preserve
located about four miles east of Valentine, was formerly the most
hunted animal of Nebraska.
There are several bird and game preserves in Nebraska established by the Legislature. The main ones are as follows:
There are many small private preserves throughout the state.
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FUR-BEARING ANIMALS
Nebraska has produced fur-bearing animals since the days of the earliest explorers and fur traders. The fur business held a relatively important place for several years and then declined with the oncoming of other activities. During the past few years, however, trapping has assumed a more important place in the industry of the state.
The principal fur-bearing animals are the muskrat, mink, weasel, skunk, raccoon, badger and beaver. The bobcat and coyote have some importance. Formerly the marten, wolverine, otter and lynx occurred in Nebraska, but these are now practically extinct.
Muskrats are found throughout the water courses and lake districts of the state, living in banks and brush houses. They occur in largest numbers about the marshes and lakes of the sandhills where trapping concessions are made by the amount received for pelts. The annual royalty income from this source amounts to over $1,000 for some ranches.
The Southern Mink is trapped in all parts of Nebraska. The skins bring good returns but the animal kills many muskrats. For this reason, the mink is more of a detriment than an asset to the fur business of Nebraska.
The Long-Tailed Weasel is quite common. It changes its color from brownish in summer to light in winter. This animal is trapped with the mink and other animals.
Skunks, of three species, the spotted civet cat, the narrow striped skunk and the broad striped sknuk (sic), are found in timber and brushland areas and about farmstead improvements and trapped with profit. Skunk farming might be carried on some of the rough stony land of the state.
Raccoon is trapped and hunted for sport, meat and fur.
The Badger, formerly in all parts of the state, remains only in the central and western counties. Its skins are used for rugs and furs.
The Beaver, which was formerly found along most streams, remains principally in the northern and western counties. They became quite plentiful at places in the Niobrara and Dismal River valleys under all year protection. There is now an open season for trapping because the animals do considerable damage to trees, irrigation ditches, and cause hay land to become flooded above the dams. Too many beaver have been killed since the Legislature established an open season.
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CONSERVATION OF THE WILD LIFE OF SANDHILL LAKES
By G. E. CONDRA, Director,
Conservation and Survey Division,
The University of Nebraska
The Conservation and Survey Division of the University and state has mapped more than 1,000 of Nebraska's sandhill lakes. The Division has studied the chemical composition of the water, also the plant and animal life of the lakes, and secured some data regarding the origin and features of these lakes. The following statement is based on our investigations:
Origin of Lakes. There are a number of erroneous assumptions regarding the origin of the sandhill lakes -- that the water comes from deep-seated sources or from shallow underflow originating in the mountains. The fact is, most of their water is supplied by local rainfall which is absorbed at once by the sandy soil and loose bed rock, under which are thick, impervious layers which prevent the loss of water to deep-seated sources. Much of the rainfall is stored in the ground and not on the surface of the land. The ground is filled with water to the level of the lakes. There is a very slow adjustment or underflow of the water towards drainage ways. It is being lost to streams and by evaporation.
Although some of the lakes are but temporary ponds above the water table proper, the surface of most of them is the general water table of the region, the position of which is regulated by rainfall evaporation and drainage. As the water table rises, the lakes deepen and enlarge. As it lowers, the lakes contract and disappear. The lakes do not all rise and fall in the same time throughout the region because of the unevenness of rainfall and because of difference in the 0 structural, topographic and drainage conditions.
Just a few years ago the lakes were greatly enlarged, much to the regret of the ranchmen who wished to use the land for hay production, but to the benefit of many forms of wild life. Now, the lakes are generally lowering. This is the third time of record that marked fluctuations have occurred.
The sandhill lakes are comparatively shallow. They vary much in size and form. Many of them have a seepage border, usually the west or northwest, and are bordered in part by marsh which merges into meadow or hay flat land lying next to the bills.
Cycles of Development. The lakes pass through stages of development. Some are young or new; others are mature, and some Are lowering to a dry bed. There are corresponding stages in the development of the life. Plants occur more or less in belts or borders, represented by zones of prairie, sedges, marsh plants, and open water vegetation. These belts invade one another as the lakes enlarge and
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Control of Lakes. The state has taken steps to control and develop some of the lakes. First, by determining whether or not they should be drained for agricultural purposes, and second, by using artesian water to maintain the necessary depth and stage for fish life especially. These wells hold the lakes to depths that cannot freeze dry in winter and maintain open water in order to prevent the smothering of fish. Although these methods used for fish conservation are of importance, there are other benefits as well.
Many of the lakes are off-again, on-again in their support of plant and animal life. In the decadent stages there is death of everything; in the mature stages is an abundance of fish, birds and mammals. The condition relates directly to wild life, and to hunting, fishing and the general economics of the region.
To further determine the possibility of the principal sandhill lakes, to decide which of them should be drained in order that the land may be used for agriculture, and to work out a sound policy for their management and utilization will call for much additional investigation; also, it will require the intelligent support of those who understand the importance of wild life conservation.
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